Juno leaves for Jupiter

NASA on August 05 launched the billion-dollar solar-powered spacecraft Juno on a five-year journey to Jupiter. The unmanned satellite observatory shot into space aboard a 197-foot-tall (60 metres) Atlas V rocket, blasting off from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida at 12:25 p.m.

“Ignition and lift-off on the Atlas V with Juno on a trek to Jupiter, a planetary piece of the puzzle on the beginning of our solar system,” said a NASA television commentator.

Once it arrives in July 2016, the spacecraft will orbit the poles of the gas giant, which has more than twice the mass of all planets in the solar system combined and is believed to be the first planet that took shape around the Sun.

Named after the wife of the Roman god Jupiter, the $1.1 billion spacecraft is NASA's first mission to the planet since Galileo was launched in 1989. It aims for 30 orbits over a period of one year.

Juno will get closer to Jupiter than any other NASA spacecraft has and will be the first to undertake a polar orbit of the planet, said Scott Bolton, Juno principal investigator and scientist at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas. 

“Juno is set up to learn about that early part of the solar system and learn how Jupiter formed and by measuring the ingredients. We are really looking for the recipe of planet formation.”

The orbiter Galileo entered the planet's orbit in 1995 and plunged into Jupiter in 2003, ending its life.

Other NASA spacecraft — including Voyager 1 and 2, Ulysses and New Horizons — have done flybys of the planet.

Juno will spend the first two years of its mission going around the Sun, then return for a flyby of the Earth, which will give a gravitational boost to accelerate the spacecraft on a three-year path toward Jupiter.

When it gets there, Juno — orbiting around 5,000 km (3,100 miles) above the gas giant — will make use of a series of instruments, some of which were provided by European space agency partners in Italy, Belgium, France and Denmark, to learn about the workings of the planet and what is inside.

Two key experiments will gauge how much water is in Jupiter and whether the planet “has a core of heavy elements at the centre, or whether it is just gas all the way down,” Mr. Bolton said at a press briefing last week.

Scientists also hope to learn more about Jupiter's magnetic fields and its Great Red Spot, a storm that has been raging for more than 300 years.

“One of the fundamental questions is how deep are the roots to that red spot? How does it maintain itself for so long?" said Mr. Bolton.

Juno is carrying a few toys as part of a campaign to raise awareness among young people about math and science.

Three 1.5 inch figurines made by LEGO toys are on board — a likeness of the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, who discovered four of Jupiter's moons, the Roman god Jupiter, and his wife Juno.

Back in 2003, when plans for Juno were being crafted, NASA briefly considered using some sort of nuclear fuel to power the spacecraft, but engineers decided it would be quicker and less risky to go with solar.

Juno is part of a series of new planetary science missions, to be followed by GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory), which is headed to the moon in September, and the Mars Science Laboratory set to take off in November

E. coli Outbreak in the Europe

Europe is currently besieged by a serious outbreak of a rare strain of E. coli foodborne bacteria. One of the largest outbreaks of E. coli ever recorded strikes Germany and several other European countries. An ongoing Escherichia coli O104:H4 bacterial outbreak began in Germany in May 2011. Certain strains of E. coli are a major cause of foodborne illness. The outbreak started after several people were infected with bacteria leading to hemolytic-uremic syndrome in Germany. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a medical emergency and requires urgent treatment. 19 people have died by 3 June and around 500 had been hospitalised with HUS due to the intensifying outbreak.
Scientists probing the deadly E. coli strain in Europe are finding the bacteria combines a highly poisonous, but common, toxin with a rarely seen "glue" that binds it to a patient's intestines.
It may take months for the global team of researchers to fully understand the characteristics of the bacteria that has killed at least 17 people in Europe and sickened 1,500. But they fear this E. coli strain is the most toxic yet to hit a human population.
Most Escherichia coli or E. coli bacteria are harmless. The strain that is sickening people in Germany and other parts of Europe, known as 0104:H4, is part of a class of bacteria known as Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli, or STEC.
This class has the ability to stick to intestinal walls where it pumps out toxins, causing diarrhea and vomiting. In severe cases, it causes hemolytic uremic syndrome or HUS, attacking the kidneys and causing coma, seizure and stroke.
Germany is now reporting 470 cases of HUS. That is absolutely extraordinary, Dr. Robert Tauxe, a foodborne diseases expert at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, told Reuters. The CDC has been working with German health authorities on the case since late last week.

The main source of E. coli is animal, especially cattle, manure. Ground beef is the main culprit. But because we use manure to fertilize crops, E. coli can also make an appearance in leafy greens, watery vegetables like tomatoes or cucumbers, and sprouts. Finally, E. coli can show up in unpasteurized milk, apple juice, orange juice, or even water. Essentially, everything. The best course of action is to buy quality products from quality vendors who know the source of their meat and produce. Avoid bargain meats, especially those that come from multiple unknown sources. As for vegetables, it's also a good idea to try and buy single source varieties, such as buying heads of lettuce as opposed to the pre-packaged stuff.

The World Health Organization has confirmed that the strain "has never been isolated from patients before," and said the bacteria had likely acquired some extra genes that may make it especially deadly.
Affected countries

• Germany
• Spain
• Sweden
• Czech Republic
• Denmark
• The Netherlands
• United Kingdom
• Switzerland
• Poland
• United States
• Austria
• France

E. coli is Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and non-sporulating. Cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 micrometres (μm) long and 0.5 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6 – 0.7 (μm)3. It can live on a wide variety of substrates. E. coli uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate and carbon dioxide. Since many pathways in mixed-acid fermentation produce hydrogen gas, these pathways require the levels of hydrogen to be low, as is the case when E. coli lives together with hydrogen-consuming organisms, such as methanogens or sulphate-reducing bacteria.

Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some, such as serotype O157:H7, can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls. The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine.

E. coli bacteria are not always confined to the intestine, and their ability to survive for brief periods outside the body makes them ideal indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. The bacterium can also be grown easily, and its genetics are comparatively simple and easily manipulated or duplicated through a process of metagenics, making it one of the best-studied prokaryotic model organisms, and an important species in biotechnology and microbiology.
E. coli was discovered by German pediatrician and bacteriologist Theodor Escherich in 1885, and is now classified as part of the Enterobacteriaceae family of gamma-proteobacteria.

E. coli normally colonizes an infant's gastrointestinal tract within 40 hours of birth, arriving with food or water or with the individuals handling the child. In the bowel, it adheres to the mucus of the large intestine. It is the primary facultative anaerobe of the human gastrointestinal tract. (Facultative anaerobes are organisms that can grow in either the presence or absence of oxygen.) As long as these bacteria do not acquire genetic elements encoding for virulence factors, they remain benign commensals.

Virulent strains of E. coli can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, and neonatal meningitis. In rarer cases, virulent strains are also responsible for haemolytic-uremic syndrome, peritonitis, mastitis, septicaemia and Gram-negative pneumonia.

The antibiotic sensitivities of different strains of E. coli vary widely. As Gram-negative organisms, E. coli are resistant to many antibiotics that are effective against Gram-positive organisms. Antibiotics which may be used to treat E. coli infection include amoxicillin, as well as other semisynthetic penicillins, many cephalosporins, carbapenems, aztreonam, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, nitrofurantoin and the aminoglycosides.

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem. Some of this is due to overuse of antibiotics in humans, but some of it is probably due to the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feeds. A study published in the journal Science in August 2007 found the rate of adaptative mutations in E. coli is "on the order of 10−5 per genome per generation, which is 1,000 times as high as previous estimates," a finding which may have significance for the study and management of bacterial antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic-resistant E. coli may also pass on the genes responsible for antibiotic resistance to other species of bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, through a process called horizontal gene transfer. E. coli bacteria often carry multiple drug-resistance plasmids, and under stress, readily transfer those plasmids to other species. Indeed, E. coli is a frequent member of biofilms, where many species of bacteria exist in close proximity to each other. This mixing of species allows E. coli strains that are piliated to accept and transfer plasmids from and to other bacteria. Thus, E. coli and the other enterobacteria are important reservoirs of transferable antibiotic resistance.

Resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics has become a particular problem in recent decades, as strains of bacteria that produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases have become more common.

Phage therapy—viruses that specifically target pathogenic bacteria—has been developed over the last 80 years, primarily in the former Soviet Union, where it was used to prevent diarrhoea caused by E. coli. Presently, phage therapy for humans is available only at the Phage Therapy Center in the Republic of Georgia and in Poland. However, on January 2, 2007, the United States FDA gave Omnilytics approval to apply its E. coli O157:H7 killing phage in a mist, spray or wash on live animals that will be slaughtered for human consumption. The enterobacteria phage T4, a highly studied phage, targets E. coli for infection.

Researchers have actively been working to develop safe, effective vaccines to lower the worldwide incidence of E. coli infection. In March 2006, a vaccine eliciting an immune response against the E. coli O157:H7 O-specific polysaccharide conjugated to recombinant exotoxin A of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (O157-rEPA) was reported to be safe in children two to five years old. Previous work had already indicated it was safe for adults. A phase III clinical trial to verify the large-scale efficacy of the treatment is planned.

In 2006, Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth) introduced an effective, live, attenuated vaccine to control airsacculitis and peritonitis in chickens. The vaccine is a genetically modified avirulent vaccine that has demonstrated protection against O78 and untypeable strains.

In January 2007, the Canadian biopharmaceutical company Bioniche announced it has developed a cattle vaccine which reduces the number of O157:H7 shed in manure by a factor of 1000, to about 1000 pathogenic bacteria per gram of manure.
In April 2009, a Michigan State University researcher announced he had developed a working vaccine for a strain of E. coli. Mahdi Saeed, professor of epidemiology and infectious disease in MSU's colleges of Veterinary Medicine and Human Medicine, has applied for a patent for his discovery and has made contact with pharmaceutical companies for commercial production.

E. coli Statistics

General Statistics
1	Cell length	2 um or 2x10-6 m
2	Cell diameter	0.8 um or 0.8x10-6 m
3	Cell total volume	1x10-15 L or 1x10-18 m3 (other est. at 0.88x10-15 L)
4	Cell aqueous volume	7 x 10-16 L
5	Cell surface area	6x10-12 m2
6	Cell wet weight	1x10-15 kg or 1x10-12 g
7	Cell dry weight	3.0x10-16 kg or 3.0x10-13 g
8	Periplasm volume	6.5x10-17 L
9	Cytoplasm volume	6.7x10-16 L
10	Envelope volume	1.6x10-16 L
11	Nuclear (DNA+protein) volume	1.6x10-16 L
12	Inner Membrane thickness	8x10-9 m
13	Outer Membrane thickness	8x10-9 - 15x10-9 m
14	Periplasm thickness	1x10-8 m
15	Average size of protein	360 residues
16	Average diameter of ave. protein	5 nm
17	Average MW of protein	40 kD
18	Average prot. oligomerization state	4 proteins/complex
19	Average MW of protein entity	160 kD
20	Average size of mRNA	1100 bases
21	Average length of mRNA	370 nm
22	Average MW of all RNAs	400 kD
23	Average MW of single DNA	3.0x109 D or 3.0x106 kD
24	Average MW of all DNA	7 x 106 kD
25	Average length of DNA (chrom.)	1.55 mm
26	Diameter of chromosome	490 um
27	Diameter of condensed chromosome	17 um
28	Spacing between small organics	3.6 nm/molecule
29	Spacing between ions	2.1 nm/molecule
30	Ave. spacing between proteins	7 nm/molecule
31	Spacing between protein entities	9 nm/molecule
32	Mean Velocity of 70 kD protein (cytoplasm)	3 nm/ms = 3x10-6 m/s
33	Mean Velocity of 40 kD protein (cytoplasm)	5 nm/ms = 5x10-6 m/s
34	Mean Velocity of 30 kD protein (cytoplasm)	7 nm/ms = 7x10-6 m/s
35	Mean Velocity of 14 kD protein (cytoplasm)	10 nm/ms = 10x10-6 m/s
36	Mean Velocity of small molecules (cytoplasm)	50 nm/ms = 5x10-5 m/s
37	Mean Velocity of protein in H2O	27 nm/ms = 2.7x10-5 m/s
38	Mean Velocity of small molecules in H2O	87 nm/ms = 8.7x10-5 m/s
39	Concentration of protein in cell	200-320 mg/mL (5-8 mM)
40	Concentration of RNA in cell	75-120 mg/mL (0.5-0.8 mM)
41	Concentration of DNA in cell	11-18 mg/mL (5 nM)
42	Volume occupied by water	70%
43	Volume occupied by protein	17%
44	Volume occupied by all RNA	6%
45	Volume occupied by rRNA	5%
46	Volume occupied by tRNA	0.8%
47	Volume occupied by mRNA	0.2%
48	Volume occupied by DNA	1%
49	Volume occupied by ribosomes	8%
50	Volume occupied by lipid	3%
51	Volume occupied by LPS	1%
52	Volume occupied by murein	1%
53	Volume occupied by glycogen	1%
54	Volume occupied by ions	0.3%
55	Volume occupied by small organics	1%
56	Translation rate	40 aa/sec
57	RNA polymerase transcription rate	70 nt/sec
Large Molecule Copy Numbers
1	Number of cell walls/cell	1
2	Number of membranes/cell	2
3	Number of chromosomes/cell	2.3 (at mid log phase)
4	Number of mRNA/cell	4000
5	Number of rRNA/cell	18,000
6	Number of tRNA/cell	200,000
7	Number of all RNA/cell	222,000
8	Number of polysaccharides/cell	39,000
9	Number of murein molecules/cell	240,000-700,000
10	Number of lipopolysaccharide/cell	600,000
11	Number of lipids/cell	25,000,000
12	Number of all lipids/cell	25,000,000
13	Number of phosphatidylethanolamine	18,500,000
14	Number of phosphatidylglycerol	5,000,000
15	Number of cardiolipin	1,200,000
16	Number of phosphatidylserine	500,000
17	Number of LPS (MW = 10kD)	600,000
18	Average SA of lipid molecule	25 Ang2
19	Fraction of lipid bilayer=lipid	40%
20	Fraction of lipid bilayer=protein	60%
21	Number of outer membrane proteins	300,000
22	Number of porins (subset of OM)	60,000
23	Number of lipoproteins (OM)	240,000
24	Number of inner membrane proteins	200,000
25	Number of nuclear proteins	100,000
26	Number of cytoplasmic proteins	1,000,000 (excluding ribo proteins)
27	Number of ribosomal proteins	900,000
28	Number of periplasmic proteins	80,000
29	Number of all proteins in cell	2,600,000
30	Number of external proteins (flag/pili)	1,000,000
31	Number of all proteins	3,600,000
Statistics on Larger Molecule Complexes
1	Number of protein types to make flagella	42
2	Length of flagella	10-20 um or ~15,000 nm
3	Diameter of flagella	25 nm
4	Number of protofilaments in flagellum	11
5	Diameter of each fliC monomer	5 nm
6	Number of fliC monomers in filament	3000x11=33,000
7	Number of flagella/cell	10
8	Number of fliC proteins	330,000
9	Speed at which E. coli move	50 um/sec = 18 x10-5 km/h
10	Number of protein types to make pilus	1
11	Length of pili/fimbrae	200-2000 nm
12	Diamter of pili	6.5 nm
13	Number of papA/nm pilus	1.5
14	Number of papA monomers/pilus	3000-30,000
15	Number of pili/cell	100-300
16	Number of papA/cell	300,000-900,000
17	Number of ribosomes/cell	18,000
18	Number of protein types to make ribosome	55
19	Number rRNA types to make ribosome	3
20	Number of proteins in 30S subunit	21
21	Number of proteins in 50S subunit	34
22	Number of rRNA in 30S subunit	1
23	Number of rRNA in 50S subunit	2
24	Length of all rRNA	5520 nt
25	MW of ribosome	2700 kD
26	MW of RNA component	1700 kD
27	MW of protein component	1000 kD
28	Diameter of ribosome	20 nm
29	Volume of ribosome	4.2 x 10-24 m3
Small Molecule Copy Numbers
1	Number of water molecules/cell	2.34x1010 (23.4 billion)
2	Number of ions/cell	120,000,000 (300 mM)
3	Number of small organics/cell	18,000,000 (40-50 mM)
4	Number of K ions	90,000,000 (200-250 mM)
5	Number of Na ions	2,000,000 (5 mM)
6	Na (in): Na (out)	1:20 (in concentration)
7	Number of Ca ions	2,300,000 (6 mM)
8	Number of free Ca ions	40 (100 nM)
9	Number of Cl ions	2,400,000 (6 mM)
10	Number of Mg ions	4,000,000 (10 mM)
11	Number of Fe ions	7,000,000 (18 mM)
12	Number of Mn ions	1,700,000 (4 mM)
13	Number of Zn ions	1,700,000 (4 mM)
14	Number of Mo ions	1,700,000 (4 mM)
15	Number of Cu ions	1,700,000 (4 mM)
16	Number of PO4 ions	2,000,000 (5 mM)
17	Number of glucose/cell	200,000-400,000 (0.5-1 mM)
18	Number of PEP/cell	1,100,000 (2.8 mM)
19	Number of pyruvate/cell	370,000 (0.9 mM)
20	Number of gluc-6-PO4/cell	20,000 (0.05 mM)
21	Number of ATP/cell	500,000 - 3,000,000 (1.3-7.0 mM)
22	Number of ADP/cell	70,000 (0.17 mM)
23	Number of NADP/cell	240,000 (0.63 mM)
24	Number of NADPH/cell	220,000 (0.56 mM)
25	Number of all amino acids/cell	6,000,000 (1.5 mM)
26	Number of free Alanine/cell	350,000 (0.8 mM)
27	Number of free Cysteine/cell	80,000 (0.2 mM)
28	Number of free Aspartate/cell	530,000 (1.34 mM)
29	Number of free Glutamate/cell	200,000 (0.5 mM)
30	Number of free Phenylalanine/cell	170,000 (0.4 mM)
31	Number of free Glycine/cell	350,000 (0.8 mM)
32	Number of free Histidine/cell	80,000 (0.2 mM)
33	Number of free Isoleucine/cell	200,000 (0.5 mM)
34	Number of free Lysine/cell	190,000 (0.46 mM)
35	Number of free Leucine/cell	300,000 (0.7 mM)
36	Number of free Methionine/cell	40,000 (0.1 mM)
37	Number of free Asparagine/cell	200,000 (0.5 mM)
38	Number of free Proline/cell	200,000 (0.5 mM)
39	Number of free Glutamine/cell	200,000 (0.5 mM)
40	Number of free Arginine/cell	170,000 (0.4 mM)
41	Number of free Serine/cell	300,000 (0.7 mM)
42	Number of free Threonine/cell	1,400,000 (3.49 mM)
43	Number of free Valine/cell	240,000 (0.6 mM)
44	Number of free Tryptophan/cell	80,000 (0.2 mM)
45	Number of free Tyrosine/cell	300,000 (0.7 mM)
46	Osmotic pressure (pushing out)	75 lb/in2
E. coli Metabolism
1	1 glucose generates (total)	36-38 ATP
2	glycolysis yields	6-8 ATP
3	oxidation of pyruvate yields	6 ATP
4	Krebs cycle/e- transport yields	24 ATP
5	Number ATP to make 1 DNA	72,289,000
6	Number ATP to make 1 protein (360 aa)	1500
7	Number ATP to make 1 lipid	7
8	Number ATP to make 1 polysaccharide	2000
9	Number ATP to make 1 RNA (1000 nt)	2000
10	Number ATP to make 1 cell	55 billion ATP
11	Number Glucose molecules consumed	1.4 billion molecules
12	Cell division rate	1 division/30 minutes

PSLV - C 16 launch successfully

India’s PSLV—C16 rocket April 2o, successfully launched into orbit the latest remote sensing satellite Resourcesat—2 that would study and help manage natural resources along with two nano satellites.

ISRO’s homegrown workhorse Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle placed in a ‘Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit’ Resourcesat-2, Youthsat and X-Sat about 18 minutes after it blasted off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre launch pad at 10.12 am.

“PSLV-C16 Resourcesat-2 mission is successful,” a jubilant Indian Space Research Organisation Chairman K Radhakrishnan announced shortly after all the three satellites were hurled into space one after another 822 km above earth in a text book launch.

The ISRO chief’s announcement was cheered by the battery of scientists at the mission control centre who heaved a sigh of relief as they were gripped by an added anxiety following two successive failures of GSLV missions last year.

The 1,206 kg Resourcesat-2 with a space life of five years replaces Resourcesat-1 launched in 2003 and would provide data with enhanced multispectral and spatial coverage on natural resources.

The GSLV mission in December last year failed when the homegrown GSLV F06 carrying communication satellite GSAT-5P exploded mid-air less than a minute after lift-off and fell into the Bay of Bengal.

GSAT-5P, carrying 24 C-band and 12 extended C-band transponders, plunged into the sea when the destruct command was issued as the rocket veered from its flight path.

Earlier, the GSLV-D3 mission carrying GSAT-4 had also failed in April 2010, dealing a blow to India’s space programme.

PSLV—C16 flight was its 17th successive mission after the failure of its maiden voyage in September 1993.

PSLV-C16 Details:

PSLV-C16, is the eighteenth flight of ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV. In this flight, the standard version of PSLV with six solid strap-on motors is used.

PSLV-C16 will place three satellites with a total payload mass of 1404 kg - RESOURCESAT-2 weighing 1206 kg, the Indo-Russian YOUTHSAT weighing 92 kg and Singapore's X-SAT weighing 106 kg – into an 822 km polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO). PSLV-C16 will be launched from the First Launch Pad (FLP) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.

The major changes made in PSLV since its first launch include changes in strap-on motors ignition sequence, increase in the propellant loading of the first stage and strap-on solid propellant motors as well as the second and fourth stage liquid propellant motors, improvement in the performance of the third stage motor by optimising motor case and enhanced propellant loading and employing a carbon composite payload adapter.

PSLV has also become a more versatile vehicle for launching multiple satellites in polar SSOs as well as Low Earth Orbits (LEO) and Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). With sixteen successful launches, PSLV has emerged as the workhorse launch vehicle of ISRO and is offered for launching satellites for international customers also. During 1994-2010 period, PSLV has launched a total of 44 satellites, of which 25 satellites are from abroad and 19 are Indian satellites.

PSLV- C16 Stages at a Glance STAGE-1 STAGE-2 STAGE-3 STAGE-4 Nomenclature Core Stage(PSI) + 6 Strap-on Motors PS2 PS3 PS4 Propellant Solid (HTPB Based) Liquid (UH25+N2O4) Solid (HTPB Based) Liquid (MMH + MON-3) Mass (Tonne) 138.0 (Core) + 6 x 9.0 (Strap-on) 41.0 7.6 2.5 Max Thrust (kN) 4703 (Core) 6 x 635(Strap-on) 804 244 7.3 x 2 Burn Time (Sec) 107 (Core) 50 (Strap-on) 151 116 510 Stage Dia (m) 2.8 (Core) 1.0 (Strap-on) 2.8 2.0 2.8 Stage Length (m) 20 (Core) 11.3 (Strap-on) 12.8 3.6 2.6

RESOURCESAT-2: RESOURCESAT-2 is a follow on mission to RESOURCESAT-1 and the eighteenth Remote Sensing satellite built by ISRO. RESOURCESAT-2 is intended to continue the remote sensing data services to global users provided by RESOURCESAT-1, and to provide data with enhanced multispectral and spatial coverage as well. Important changes in RESOURCESAT-2 compared to RESOURCESAT-1 are: Enhancement of LISS-4 multispectral swath from 23 km to 70 km and improved Radiometric accuracy from 7 bits to 10 bits for LISS-3 and LISS-4 and 10 bits to 12 bits for AWIFS. Besides, suitable changes, including miniaturisation in payload electronics, have been made in RESOURCESAT-2. RESOURCESAT-2 also carries an additional payload known as AIS (Automatic Identification System) from COMDEV, Canada as an experimental payload for ship surveillance in VHF band to derive position, speed and other information about ships. RESOURCESAT-2 carries two Solid State Recorders with a capacity of 200 Giga Bytes each to store the images taken by its cameras which can be read out later to ground stations.

Mission Remote Sensing Orbit Circular Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit altitude at injection 822 km + 20 km (3 Sigma) Orbit Inclination 98.731º + 0.2º Lift-off Mass 1206 kg Orbit Period 101.35 min Number of Orbits per day 14 Local Time of Equator crossing 10:30 am Repetivity 24 days Attitude and Orbit Control 3-axis body stabilised using Reaction Wheels, Magnetic Torquers and Hydrazine Thrusters Power Solar Array generating 1250 W at End Of Life, two 24 AH Ni-Cd batteries Launch date April 20, 2011 Launch site SHAR Centre Sriharikota India Launch vehicle PSLV- C16 Mission life 5 years

YOUTHSAT: YOUTHSAT is a joint Indo-Russian stellar and atmospheric satellite mission with the participation of students from Universities at graduate, post graduate and research scholar level. With a lift-off mass of 92 kg, Youthsat is a mini satellite and the second in the Indian Mini Satellite (IMS) series. Youthsat mission intends to investigate the relationship between solar variability and thermosphere-Ionosphere changes. The satellite carries three payloads, of which two are Indian and one Russian. Together, they form a unique and comprehensive package of experiments for the investigation of the composition, energetics and dynamics of earth's upper atmosphere. The Indian payloads are: RaBIT (Radio Beacon for Ionospheric Tomography)- For mapping Total Electron Content (TEC) of the Ionosphere. LiVHySI (Limb Viewing Hyper Spectral Imager) - To perform airglow measurements of the Earth's upper atmosphere (80- 600 km) in 450-950 nm. The Russian payload: SOLRAD - For monitoring the solar X- and gamma ray fluxes and to study solar cosmic ray flux parameters and conditions of their penetration in the Earth's magnetosphere.

Lift-off Mass 92 kg Orbit Period 101.35 min Dimension 1020 (Pitch) x 604 (Roll) x 1340 (Yaw) mm3 Attitude and Orbit Control 3-axis body stabilised using Sun and Star Sensors, Miniature Magnetometer, Miniature Gyros, Micro Reaction Wheels and Magnetic Torquers Power Solar Array generating 230 W, one 10.5 AH Li-ion battery Mechanisms Paraffin Actuator based Solar Panel Hold Down and Release Mechanism Launch date April 20, 2011 Launch site SHAR Centre Sriharikota India Launch vehicle PSLV- C16 Orbit Circular Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit altitude at injection 822 km + 20 km (3 Sigma) Orbit Inclination 98.731 º + 0.2 º Mission life 2 years

X-SAT:

X-SAT, the third payload of PSLV-C16, is Singapore's first satellite. Weighing 106 kg at lift-off, X-SAT is a Mini Satellite with a multispectral camera IRIS as its primary payload. X-SAT mission mainly intends to demonstrate technologies related to satellite based remote sensing and onboard image processing.

ISRO MILESTONES

PSLV-C16 successfully launches Three Satellites - RESOURCESAT-2, YOUTHSAT, X-SAT from Sriharikota (April 20, 2011).
GSLV-F06 launched from Shriharikota (Dec 25, 2010). GSAT-5P could not be placed into orbit as the GSLV-F06 mission was not successful..
PSLV-C15 successfully launches Five Satellites - CARTOSAT-2B, ALSAT-2A, two nanosatellites-NLS-6.1 & 6.2 and a pico-satellite- STUDSAT from Sriharikota (July 12, 2010).
GSLV-D3 launched from Sriharikota (Apr 15, 2010). GSAT-4 satellite could not be placed in orbit as flight testing of the Indigenous Cryogenic Stage in GSLV-D3 Mission was not successful.
PSLV-C14 successfully launches Seven Satellites - OCEANSAT-2, Four CUBESAT Satellites and Two RUBIN-9 from Sriharikota (Sept. 23, 2009).
PSLV-C12 successfully launches RISAT-2 and ANUSAT from Sriharikota (April 20, 2009).
PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota (October 22, 2008). PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign nano satellites from Sriharikota (April 28,2008). PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract with Antrix Corporation (January 21, 2008).
Successful launch of GSLV (GSLV-F04) with INSAT-4CR on board from SDSC SHAR (September 2, 2007). ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C8, successfully launched Italian astronomical satellite, AGILE from Sriharikota (April 23, 2007). Successful launch of INSAT-4B by Ariane-5 from Kourou French Guyana, (March 12, 2007). Successful recovery of SRE-1 after manoeuvring it to reenter the earth’s atmosphere and descend over the Bay of Bengal about 140 km east of Sriharikota (January 22, 2007). ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C7 successfully launches four satellites - India’s CARTOSAT-2 and Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) and Indonesia’s LAPAN-TUBSAT and Argentina’s PEHUENSAT-1 (January 10, 2007).
Second operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F02) from SDSC SHAR with INSAT-4C on board. (July 10, 2006). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
Successful launch of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (December 22, 2005). ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully launched CARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota(May 5, 2005).
The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched EDUSAT from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)
ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT-1(IRS-P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003). Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (September 28, 2003). The Second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with GSAT-2on board from Sriharikota (May 8, 2003). Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003).
ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched KALPANA-1 satellite from Sriharikota(September 12, 2002). Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (January 24, 2002).
ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3,successfully launched three satellites -- Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD of Germany and PROBA of Belgium - into their intended orbits (October 22, 2001). The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from Sriharikota (April 18, 2001).
INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (March 22, 2000).
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota (May 26, 1999). INSAT-2E, the last satellite in the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 3, 1999).
INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT (January 1998).
INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched (June 4, 1997). Becomes inoperable on October 4, 1997. (An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, was acquired in November 1997 to partly augment the INSAT system). First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board (September 29, 1997). Satellite placed in orbit.
Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3, on board (March 21, 1996). Satellite placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.
Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C (December 28, 1995). INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (December 7, 1995).
Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2, on board (October 15, 1994). Satellite successfully placed in Polar Sunsynchronous Orbit. Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2, on board (May 4, 1994). Satellite placed in orbit.
First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board (September 20, 1993). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23, 1993).
INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-generation INSAT series, launched (July 10, 1992). Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-Con board (May 20, 1992). Satellite placed in orbit.
Second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, launched (August 29, 1991).
INSAT-1D launched (June 12, 1990).
INSAT-1C launched (July 21,1988). Abandoned in November 1989. Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A (March 17, 1988).
First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board (March 24, 1987). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April 1984).
INSAT-1B, launched (August 30, 1983). Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17, 1983).
INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982). Deactivated on September 6, 1982.
Bhaskara-II launched (November 20, 1981). APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite successfully launched (June 19, 1981). RS-D1 placed in orbit (May 31, 1981) First developmental launch of SLV-3.
Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit. (July 18, 1980).
First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board (August 10, 1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (June 7, 1979).
Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.
ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975). Becomes Government Organisation (April 1, 1975).
Air-borne remote sensing experiments.
Space Commission and Department of Space set up (June 1, 1972). ISRO brought under DOS.
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department of Atomic Energy (August 15, 1969).
TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).
Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.
Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.
First sounding rocket launched from TERLS (November 21, 1963).
Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started.